Social media has become a vital space for political discourse, community engagement, and activism. Yet, its lack of robust accountability and moderation has allowed hate speech to flourish, often targeting women in public life and limiting their participation. To address this critical issue, All Rights Foundation (ARF), a civil society organisation based in Gyumri, Armenia, conducted research examining the impact of hate speech on women’s involvement in politics and public spaces.
This research is part of ARF’s project “Empowering Women: Digital Safeguarding Against Hate Speech,” implemented as a sub-grant within the broader “EQUAL – EU 4 Women Empowerment in Armenia” initiative, funded by the European Union. The project is a collaborative effort under the European Partnership for Democracy (EPD) and the OxYGen Foundation, with technical support from Democracy Reporting International.
Investigating gender-based hate speech in Armenian politics
DRI delivered a social media monitoring course to the ARF designed to help them understand and confront online hate speech. The training spanned four interactive modules that covered both the theoretical and practical aspects of social media monitoring, providing participants with the skills necessary to design, implement, and analyse research on online hate speech. ARF conducted an in-depth investigation into the prevalence of gender-based hate speech targeting prominent women in Armenian politics. This research focused on how public discourse online is shaped by gender biases, political tensions, and misinformation. Using both qualitative and quantitative research methods, the ARF team, supported by DRI’s Digital Democracy team, produced a comprehensive report that not only highlights the scale of the problem but also offers solutions for mitigating online hate speech.
ARF’s research uncovered several significant trends and patterns in online hate speech, particularly directed at women in public life. These findings not only shed light on the prevalence of hate speech but also reveal the complex ways in which political tensions, societal biases, and misinformation interact to fuel gender-based discrimination.
Key findings: the nature of hate speech against women in Armenia
One of the most striking findings from the research is the strong connection between Armenia’s political situation and the volume and intensity of hate speech. During periods of political upheaval—such as elections, protests, or crises—online activity increases dramatically, leading to a spike in hateful and aggressive language. This is particularly true for posts discussing political topics, where female political figures are often targeted with vitriolic comments. Women in politics, especially those holding official positions or expressing strong political views, face the highest levels of engagement in online discussions, with many of these interactions being hostile. The study also noted that the vocabulary used in hate speech intensifies during periods of national tension, with users resorting to more emotionally charged and derogatory language. These hostile interactions reflect a broader trend in which political polarisation amplifies online hate speech, particularly against women who are seen as either embodying or challenging the status quo.
Comments collected in 2021, the year following the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War. The most hateful comments were recorded against the backdrop of street struggles, and election processes. Screenshot from the report.
The manifestations of hate speech in Armenia’s online space are diverse and alarming. In the collected material, a significant portion of the comments consisted of demeaning, humiliating, and mocking expressions. These were often accompanied by calls for violence, sexual insults, and hostile remarks based on discriminatory attitudes toward gender, national and religious identities, sexual orientation, appearance, family status, disability, and political views. One troubling aspect of this hate speech was the frequent targeting of women’s families, with commenters directing curses or threats toward their children, parents, and even husbands or brothers.
Another disturbing trend identified in the research was the use of conspiracy theories and misinformation to target women in public life. During times of change or crisis—such as the consideration of new laws or emergency situations like the pandemic or the escalation of conflict—online hate speech often becomes entwined with conspiracy theories. Women who are outspoken or in positions of power are frequently accused of being part of shadowy international networks or pursuing divisive agendas, with commenters presenting fabricated “evidence” to support their claims.
The research also found that hate speech is sometimes accompanied by conspiracy theories and misinformation, often during times of change, such as when new laws are being considered or adopted, or during emergency situations like the escalation of conflict, war, or a pandemic. Screenshot from the report.
Addressing the gaps: legal and policy reforms
ARF has uncovered critical gaps and challenges within Armenia’s legislative framework for combating online hate speech against women. Despite ongoing initiatives, the lack of comprehensive laws specifically addressing digital hate speech remains a pressing concern. Existing legal provisions are often too broad and vague, failing to provide clear definitions of hate speech. This lack of clarity complicates enforcement efforts and undermines effective responses to the widespread targeting of women in online spaces.
These are some of their highlights:
How has the research supported your advocacy efforts?
The research from the “Empowering Women: Digital Safeguarding Against Hate Speech” project has been a cornerstone in enhancing our advocacy work. It has provided detailed insights into the alarming spread of hate speech, particularly in the Armenian media landscape, where social media platforms like Facebook and YouTube serve as key arenas for public discourse. By analysing the comment sections of posts, we’ve identified how hate speech, especially targeting female public and political figures, takes root and proliferates. This visibility not only amplifies the damage but also expands its reach beyond geographical boundaries. Armed with this data, we’ve been able to push for stronger moderation practices in media outlets and highlight the need for responsibility, as seen in the positive example set by the Media Ethics Observatory’s code of conduct. This evidence-based approach has empowered us to advocate for reforms that aim to both prevent and mitigate hate speech against women in the digital sphere.
How is the outreach on the findings going in terms of supporting reforms in the field?
The outreach efforts have been met with positive engagement. We’ve successfully disseminated our findings through collaboration with civil society organisations and policymakers, aiming to foster a greater understanding of the nature and roots of hate speech against women. By highlighting the extensive impact of unmoderated hate speech in social media comment sections, we’ve encouraged media organisations to adopt more proactive content moderation policies. The example of the Media Ethics Observatory, with over 80 media outlets adhering to their code of conduct, has been a strong point of reference in our advocacy. While challenges remain, particularly in the enforcement of these policies and ensuring sustained commitment, our findings have provided a solid foundation for promoting reforms aimed at safeguarding women from online harassment.
Do you have any reflections on changes you’ve noticed compared to your previous work?
One of the key differences in this project compared to our previous work is the comprehensive nature of the research and its focus on social media platforms as both a public forum and a breeding ground for hate speech. The data collected from the comment sections of Facebook and YouTube posts has revealed the transactional model of communication at play, where hate speech is often spontaneous and undirected but highly harmful. This has sharpened our understanding of the need for media outlets to not only take responsibility for their content but also for the discussions that arise from it. The inclusion of focus group discussions and interviews with gender experts and media professionals has also enriched our approach, making it more holistic. We’ve observed increased awareness among stakeholders, and there’s now a more focused dialogue on the importance of moderating hate speech, especially in media-driven online spaces. This shift, supported by our data and recommendations, represents meaningful progress in addressing the issue.
“EQUAL – EU 4 Women Empowerment in Armenia” project is implemented by OxYGen Foundation, European Partnership for Democracy NGO, Netherlands Helsinki Committee NGO, Women’s Support Center NGO, WINNET Goris Development Foundation in cooperation with Winnet Sweden NGO. The project is funded by the European Union.
The project “Empowering Women: Digital Safeguarding Against Hate Speech” is a sub-grant implemented by ARF within the “EQUAL – EU 4 Women Empowerment in Armenia” project.
DRI’s role was to provide a capacity development programme on social media monitoring and research support. More on their methodology and coursework can be found here.
Photo of Tverdokhlib on Adobe Stock
